Persian Language and Literature

Investigating the Emotion of "Sadness" in Nezami’s Panj Ganj; Based on the Conceptual Metaphor Approach

leila Azarnivar

One of the fundamental emotions is sadness, which, due to the intensity of its impact on human behavior and psyche, can sometimes cause serious problems. Sadness is significant not only in the field of psychology but also in linguistics, to the extent that Lakoff and Johnson have employed it as a target domain in their theory of conceptual metaphor. Nezami’s poetry reflects human emotions and feelings, expressed in a complex and sometimes ambiguous metaphorical language, and decoding and understanding it can influence the thoughts and daily interactions of the audience. This is because, according to Lakoff and Johnson, a major part of our verbal communication is constituted by such metaphors. In the present study, using a descriptive-analytical method based on a cognitive approach, the conceptualization of the emotion of sadness in Nezami’s Panj Ganj (also called Khamsa or the Five Treasures) has been examined from the perspective of conceptual metaphor to clarify the strategies Nezami employed to depict this abstract concept. The findings indicated that the emotion of sadness imparts a particular character to Nezami’s poems as its frequency is high in some of his works, such as Khosrow and Shirin and Layla and Majnun. For conceptualizing sadness, especially that associated with losing something valuable, such as love or death of loved ones, he draws upon various source domains, including humans, plants, animals, natural disasters, and others.

The Experience of Dasein in a Heideggerian Reading of Yaghma Jandaghi’s Khābnāmeh

Narges Oskouie

This article, adopting a phenomenological approach and focusing on the fundamental concepts of Heidegger’s philosophy, provides an ontological analysis of Khābnāmeh (dream narrative) by Yaghma Jandaghi, centered on existential questions. It examines the representation of dream/death and being within the framework of Dasein’s experience. In Heideggerian philosophy, Dasein refers to the questioning being, continuously engaged in the pursuit of meaning and identity in relation to time, death, and other existential dimensions. In this study, dreams and sleep are considered not only as contexts for Dasein’s lived experience but also as liminal conditions between life and death, providing a field for the emergence of existential tensions. From a psychological and ontological perspective, these states offer an experience akin to a rupture from everyday life and an encounter with the most concealed aspects of human existence. Drawing on key Heideggerian concepts related to Dasein and fundamental ontology, such as “hiddenness,” “existential anxiety,” and “being-there/being-in-the-world,” the study demonstrates that dreams, conceived as death and as figurative experience, position Dasein on a trajectory that confronts the hidden dimensions of existence and self. Furthermore, Dasein’s internal conflicts during the processes of dreaming and awakening reflect the fundamental tension between authentic and inauthentic possibilities of being, which can simultaneously be interpreted as a symbolic manifestation of the existential struggle between good and evil in Heidegger’s philosophy. Consequently, the dreams in this work symbolically invite Dasein to face the truth, make existential choices, and recognize human limitations, thereby facilitating a deeper understanding of being and human identity.

An Investigation of Innovation in Scholarly Articles on the Shahnameh: A Case Study of 2007-2011

Javâd Dehqâniân

The trajectory of the Shahnameh studies from its inception in 1915 until the end of 2006 has been critically evaluated in several articles. These studies have examined factors such as the quantitative growth of articles, the reasons behind the fluctuations in the Shahnameh scholarship, and the thematic, content-related, and structural weaknesses of the articles. However, these earlier analyses have paid less attention to the degree of innovation in research methods, hypotheses, and novel findings, which are among the most crucial components of a scholarly article. This study addresses two fundamental indicators of scholarly research articles on the Shahnameh and Ferdowsi published between 2007 and 2011, examining innovation in two of their main sections: the research problem and the research method. For this purpose, 210 scholarly research articles published in the last five years of the 1380s (in the Iranian calendar) were categorized into nine thematic groups based on academic criteria. Subsequently, the level of innovation and trend-setting impact of these articles was assessed based on specific indicators. Quantitatively, the thematic categories of "Textual Studies of the Shahnameh," "Comparative Analyses of the Shahnameh with Other Works," and "Analyses of Characters in the Shahnameh" have higher frequencies than other topics. The results indicate that, compared to previous periods, qualitatively, thematic and methodological shortcomings have diminished in the articles of this era, and fresh perspectives and new approaches have emerged in the Shahnameh studies. In the thematic category of "Textual Studies of the Shahnameh," due to various factors such as the publication of a critically edited version of the Shahnameh, a greater focus on literary theories, and comparative and intertextual studies, some articles have been published that have, at times, been trend-setting.

The Relationship Between Madness and Terror of Death in the Stories Buried Alive (Zendeh beh Gur) and Three Drops of Blood (Seh Qatreh Khun)

Sinâ Bashiri

Life in the modern world is accompanied by anxiety, meaninglessness, and despair, which ultimately culminates in the inescapable fate of death – a theme that has become a central focus in modern art and literature. Due to his pessimistic worldview and his fascination with the concept of death, Hedāyat made the existential impact of death on human life the subject of many of his stories. In Hedāyat’s works, most of the characters suffer from a kind of isolation, pessimism, nihilism, and neurosis, which in many cases lead to their death or suicide. In this article, using a descriptive-analytical method, the fundamental significance of the concepts of "madness" and "terror of death" and the function of madness in confronting the terror of death in Hedāyat’s stories, Buried Alive (Zendeh beh Gur) and Three Drops of Blood (Seh Qatreh Khun), were analyzed. The findings showed that in Hedāyat’s stories, by rendering modern life futile and meaningless and by emptying individuals’ minds, madness plays with death and the terror arising from it, and liberates the characters’ minds from existential anxiety and concerns. By renouncing life before death and making an ironic use of suicide, madness ultimately frees the individuals from the terror of death.

Two Lexical and Syntactic Issues in The Šâhnâmeh: Symbols of Speed and an Example of Predicative Possession

Mohammad Hasan Jalâliân Châleshtari

The goal of achieving an older, more authentic version of the Shahnameh requires meticulous attention to every element, from the general themes to the smallest details. The unique features of this work, in terms of its antiquity and impressive volume, make it one of the most important sources of the Persian language in various fields such as history, mythology, historical language grammar, and rhetorical techniques. They increase the importance of this special attention a hundredfold. With this approach, the current article deals with two main issues, under which some other topics are also addressed. The first issue is to find and prove some cases of using the words bād “wind” and gard “dust” containing the meaning of haste and speed, with or without the preposition az. Another issue focuses on the fact that in the critical revision of the Shahnameh, regarding seemingly unimportant topics that do not differ much between the recording of the oldest (i.e., Florence) manuscript and the consensus of others, such as key and effective issues about the meaning of the verses and the flow of the stories, it is essential to use maximum care and precision in the selection of recordings, and the mere presence of a word of this kind in the oldest manuscript should not be used to judge its authenticity and include it in the text. This question has been addressed by relying on the verse containing the first mention of Zahhāk in the Shahnameh: ke az mehr bahra-sh nabud andaki.

The Role of Rhetorical Devices in the Interaction of Form and Meaning in Attar's Mantiq-ut-tayr Based on Jakobson’s Theory of Communication

Mohammad Farahmand

Roman Jakobson considered the differences between linguistic roles to stem from the prominence of some communicative elements (addresser, addressee, message, content, contact, and codes). He believed that every message has several linguistic roles, usually one of which is more prominent. In literary texts, due to their complexity, multilayered structure, and the fluidity of signs, rhetorical devices not only create or enhance the poetic function and elevate the formal quality of the text, but also interact with other linguistic functions. When used intelligently, they foster harmony and alignment between the form and meaning of the text. In the present study, using a descriptive-analytical method, the role of rhetorical devices in shaping the interplay between form and meaning in Attar’s Mantiq-ut-tayr (The Conference of the Birds) is examined. The findings reveal that, with a deep understanding of the diverse functions of language, Attar established balance and coherence between rhetorical devices and the moral-mystical content of Mantiq-ut-tayr. He employed these devices based on their literary essence and function to convey specific concepts. For instance, he used ḥusn-i taʿlīl (elegant justification) to explain educational and mystical ideas, murāʿāt al-naẓīr (parallelism) to create thematic unity and textual cohesion, and mutanaqez-namāʾī (paradox) to depict the contradictory nature of mystical experiences and the internal and external conflicts of the mystic. The proper use of rhetorical devices according to the subject matter and content of the anecdotes of Mantiq-ut-tayr has created a lot of beauty, influence, interaction, and harmony of form and content.

A Concrete Study of the Narrative of Rostam and Šaqâd from the Perspective of New Criticism

mohammad khosravishakib

The story of “Rostam and Šaqâd” is one of the most technical and coherent narratives in the Šâhnâmeh. In this story, the most prominent hero, Rostam, is removed from the narrative flow. His interest and attachment to Rostam caused Ferdowsi to show great sensitivity and obsession in removing Rostam from the narrative. In order to remove this national figure, Ferdowsi had to exert a lot of linguistic and psychological precision to make the death of such a great and invincible character appear reasonable. As a concrete and systematic approach, new criticism attempts to show the verbal patterns, harmony, coherence, and the internal unity of the components in a work by giving authenticity to the text. The premise of this article is that Ferdowsi tried to make the death of a hero like Rostam believable to the reader by using categories called “trust game” and “emotional deception”. Premises such as “charming”, “persuading”, “creating crisis and urgency”, “creating astonishment”, “transforming my story into ours”, “collusion”, “attracting trust”, “accelerating trust”, and “conspiracy” make Rostam’s murder believable to a great extent. In this article, using the method of qualitative and precise description and analysis of the text, an attempt is made to evaluate Ferdowsi’s linguistic and psychological premises for the justification of the death of his great hero.

The Impact of the Geoculture of Iranian Poetry and Literature on Ethnic Convergence Based on Poetic and Oral Literature in Azerbaijani Turkish

Fâtemeh Ma’navi

Geoculture is one of the most prominent concepts that has emerged in the field of international politics and geopolitics after the Cold War, and it has highlighted the importance of the issue of culture in advancing political and economic goals in relations between different societies and nations. Accordingly, Iranian statesmen have also placed attention on the cultural sphere of Iran at the forefront of their cultural-political programs in order to achieve cultural convergence and interaction with neighboring countries. Despite ethnic differences, the geographical sphere of cultural Iran, with its shared components such as customs, religion, art, and literature, provides a suitable platform for the development of a common identity. Among the aforementioned components, language and literature hold a special place in terms of attractiveness and persuasive power. In this paper, we have conducted a descriptive-analytical study of the Azerbaijani Turkish poetic literature of the oral literature branch, especially by focusing on Turkish bayats common among the people of Iran with common themes in the field of patriotism. This shows that with a realistic perspective and proper planning in the field of poetry and literature, especially the literature of Iranian ethnic groups, due to ethnic commonalities with neighbors such as Azerbaijan, we can take solid steps towards convergence with neighboring countries and improve our cultural position and, consequently, our political and economic position in the region.

From Historical Event to Literary Narrative: A Narrative Reading of the Historical Event of the “Liberation of Bukhara” in Târix-i Jahângušâ through David Herman’s Narrative Theory

Shirin Roshani

The historical event of the liberation of Bukhara is among those highly significant occurrences that have been recorded by numerous historians. The manner in which this event has been chronicled across different historical texts reflects the diversity of approaches and perspectives regarding historiography and the narration of events. In some of these texts, the accounts are presented in greater detail, to the point that the narrative transcends a mere historical report. One historian who recorded this event with an approach beyond simple reporting is Aṭa-Malik Juvayni, the author of Tarikh-i Jahangushay (The History of the World Conqueror). An analysis of Juvayni’s account reveals multiple factors that persuade the reader that he documented the events not solely for the purpose of reporting but from a broader outlook. In the present study, the event of the liberation of Bukhara was examined through a descriptive–analytical method and a narratological approach. The analysis is based on David Herman’s four-level narrative analysis theory, which examines narratives at the levels of happening, event sequencing, worldmaking/world disruption, and experientiality, thereby revealing the degree of narrativity within an event. At the first level of Juvayni’s narrative (happening), the narrator’s position can be identified in four distinct roles. In other words, Juvayni, by alternately assuming the roles of writer (reporter and reminder) and teller (reporter, moralizer), employs strategies that elevate the event beyond the confines of mere reporting to arrange a literary creation. At the second level (event sequencing), by skillfully arranging a beginning, middle, and end, Juvayni organizes the events into a causal structure, which presupposes a narrative plot. In shaping this narrative, Juvayni distinguishes between main and subsidiary events. This ordering of events, combined with precise depictions of time and place, illuminates Juvayni’s narrative method at the third level (worldmaking). Finally, at the fourth level, Juvayni induces a sense of experientiality in the reader through three techniques. It must be noted that such evocation is rarely perceived in historical texts. Yet, in their reports, Iranian historians often aim at purposes beyond mere chronicling, pursuing what can be termed the principle of instruction to influence their audience. At this level, by adopting three distinct techniques—an eloquent proemial description at the beginning of the narrative, the blending of discourse and image, and the incorporation of poetry and proverbs at the service of instruction—Juvayni affects the reader’s emotional system and transforms feeling into understanding. Ultimately, this process generates a central idea within the audience. This process results in the emergence of one of the essential elements of narrativity: the transition from the level of mere reporting to that of literary creation.

A Study of the Function and Evolution of Epic in Historical Novels from 1905 to 1953

Hasan Shahryâri

Epic stories and ideas have capacities that partly nourish revolutionary and liberation movements and partly serve antihuman, dictatorial systems and various forms of fundamentalism. The epic potential of Iranian stories, depending on the needs of each period, has manifested itself occasionally in epic poems, at times between the lines of historical works, and at other times as novels and historical stories. The historical fiction, as one of the newly emerging literary genres in the Qajar period, maintains a deep connection with epic narratives and ideas, and writers have made use of it with different aims and methods. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study aimed at examining the goals of the writers, how they were used, and even the developments that led to the epic and epic ideas in these works. This study was conducted using library sources and a descriptive-analytical and comparative method. The findings indicate that in the first period of historical novels (1905–1921), considering the danger of the destruction of Iranian identity in the face of foreigners, authors sought to promote epic ideas with an educational view to create a spirit of resistance, unity, and defense of the homeland, while in the second period (1921–1941), the epic element functioned as a tool at the service of the court and the expression of the nationalist ideas of the first Pahlavi era. In the third period (1941–1953), under the influence of the Allied occupation of Iran and the weakening of the court, epic ideas declined, and stories and ayyar (rogue) heroes replaced epic thought and heroic champions.

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Supplications in Attar’s Mosibatnāma Based on Fairclough’s Model

Zahra Hosseini

Mosibatnāma (book of afflictions) is one of Attar’s most significant masnavi (rhyming couplet) poems in the realm of mystical literature, wherein the poet’s supplications to the Divine have endowed it with a unique charm. The structure of these supplications—with dimensions of fear, intimacy, and reproach—assists the poet in articulating social and ethical ideas. In this study, using a descriptive-analytical method, the discursive dimensions of the supplications in Attar’s Mosibatnāma and the way social and power relations are articulated and interpreted in the text are examined through Fairclough’s model. According to this approach, Attar’s supplications in Mosibatnāma fall into three categories—fearful, intimate, and reproachful—each analyzed at three levels: description, interpretation, and explication. At the descriptive level, lexical features, sentence structures, and grammatical patterns reflect the poet’s social experience and convey the social anxiety and turmoil of Khorasan in the 7th century AH. At the interpretive level, the poet’s focus on describing God’s essential attributes conveys submission of the servant before the Divine, confirming the dominance of Ash’ari determinist thought within the poet’s social environment. At the explicative level, we observe the traces of courtly authority and the poet’s desire to purify the spiritual atmosphere of his era, an atmosphere in which social, religious, and doctrinal chaos have accumulated and materialism and self-interest have flourished. Other findings include the poet’s representation of the society’s governing system alongside his idealistic aspiration for peace and friendship.

The Function of the Imagination of the Element of Fire in Forouq Farrokhzâd’s Works

Ali-Rezâ Nikouei

Gaston Bachelard (1884–1962), the renowned French theorist, explored imagination in literary texts through a psychological interpretation of archetypal elements—fire, water, air, and earth. In Bachelard’s view, the task of the power of thought is to produce concepts, and imagery is the product of the power of imagination. He argues that human beings imagine before they perceive or experience. From this perspective, literature and art originate from pure imagination. Bachelard maintains that conventional or rhetorical imagery has little significance; rather, what matters are those creative images that arise from the four primordial elements. In his view, imagination draws inspiration from the unconscious, determining which element predominates in a writer’s creative vision. Although an author may allude to all four elements within a single work, only one ultimately dominates the author’s imaginative field. The roots of these differences in poetry lie in the poet’s unconscious mind—encompassing inner desires, childhood memories, and the environment in which the poet’s reveries were formed. Hence, the fact that the material imagination of each writer is different from that of another is rooted in their biological, experiential, sensory, and intellectual differences. In this study, after examining Bachelard’s views on the imagination of fire—particularly as discussed in The Psychoanalysis of Fire and The Flame of a Candle—we analyze all of Forough Farrokhzad’s works that address these elements. The findings indicate that among the four elements, fire is the most dominant in Farrokhzad’s early poetry, symbolizing her passionate love, emotional intensity, and the sensual dimension of her amorous experience.