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Abdul Qadir Jurjânî, with his two famous books, is the most important scholar of Islamic rhetoric. He is the founder of rhetoric in the Muslim world. One of Jurjânî’s most prominent accomplishments is his comprehensive classification of metaphors. First of all, Jurjânî distinguishes between non-expressive and expressive metaphors, and then presents subclasses for expressive, or “useful”, metaphor. Most writers before Jurjânî used a particular kind of metaphor to present examples for clarifications in their discussions, but Jurjânî distinguishes different kinds of metaphors whose mechanism he does not reduce into a single one. In his classification, Jurjânî approaches metaphors innovatively. This article aims to study this classification from a fresh perspective.

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At some historical points, all classes and professions of a society, despite all the differences and disagreements, flow into one single stream to reach a higher goal. Iranians have had this historical experience many times throughout history: during the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911), and also in the Islamic Revolution in 1979. In the Constitutional Revolution, all classes and professions of the society sought a higher goal that was the eradication of despotism and the establishment of the reign of law. In this Revolution, Persian literature, including poetry and prose, was at the service of the Revolution and satire became the revolutionaries’ main media. Literature of this era became so thoroughly mixed with politics that we can consider the great literati of this period as the great makers of the history of Iran. In this article, we have tried to explore and prove their importance.

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One of the most important aspects of analyzing literary texts is the consideration of the reflection of the author's thoughts, wishes, griefs and regrets as defense mechanisms. In reviewing the reflection of an author's unconscious in his or her work, psychoanalytic or psychological criticism is often used, in which the critic tries to reveal the influence of the author's mental constraints on hidden layers of the work or to open textual ambiguities using psychoanalytical or psychological principles. The authors of this article have tried to investigate in a short story collection, Be Ki Salaam Konam?, one of Simin Daneshvar’s most important psychological anxieties, that is, "infertility pain"; a pain which though is not traced in Jalal al-Ahmad's independent works, it is present in Daneshvar's stories and appears in different ways. Be Ki Salaam Konam? has become a feminine narrative of Jalal’s Sangi Bar Goori. The subject of most of the stories of the former is "infertility", which is presented using child, adopted child, and grandson in the form of free or affiliated motifs. Daneshvar uses unconscious symbols such as the old women to suggest infertility. The reactions of characters in the stories to infertility can be described through defense mechanisms such as displacement, sublimation and projection. Nonetheless, throughout the discussion, when necessary, the paper will benefit from approaches such as archetypal criticism as well.

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The crisis of representation is a topic widely discussed in critique and theory of postmodern literature. This refers to the crises of the present era including the crisis of meaning, the perplexity of contemporary humankind amidst a mass of valid and invalid data, alienation, etc. Literature, as the epitome of human life, is a reflection of these crises in the contemporary era. Azadeh Khanoom and Her Author or‌ the private Auschwitz of Dr. Sharifi, written by Reza Baraheni, is among the most well-known novels of the last three decades in Iran. This novel is regarded as a noteworthy example of postmodern fiction. In the present article, the crisis of representation in Azadeh Khanoom and Her Author is analyzed based on “subject”, as the philosophical substitute for the concept of “man”. In this analysis, the crisis of representation, its consequences for human subject and its influence on Baraheni’s fictional characters are explored; consequently, crises such as identity crisis, personality crisis, etc. can be considered as complications of man’s current affliction of the crisis of representation.
 

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The "Mour" is an elegiac dirge in Laki – an ancient language still spoken in regions as diverse as Lorestan, Hamadan, Ilam, and Kermanshah. Sung in an elegiac non-rhythmic tune and just in one distich in memory of a dead person, these wistful melodies have a rather long history. The purpose of this article, which is descriptive-analytical and library-based, is to explore the relationship between the distiches of Mour and the socioeconomic status of Laki-speaking men. In this regard, it has been pointed out that in Mour dirges, men’s bravery, magnanimity and hospitality, as well as their economic and social status, physical strength, etc. are often described. The frequency of these descriptions indicate the position of epic, elegy, and narrative in verses of Laki poetry that often in just one distich capture the most outstanding feature of warriors, thanes, tribal sheriffs, farmers and herdsmen.

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As one of the most famous philosophers of the twentieth century, Heidegger has proposed significant ideas about ontology. The undercurrent of his philosophy is the question of being in the world or Dasein. He believes that human is the only creature for whom being in the world is a question and only human is capable of asking about Dasein. Heidegger thinks that authentic poets with their particular use of language are the rightful peoples that can perceive and reveal the truth of being. Sohrab Sepehri is a contemporary poet who has a systematic frame of mind. In his poems, especially in his late works, consciously, continuously, and varyingly he speaks about the true being of things. In this analytic-descriptive article, the authors study Sohrab Sepehri's philosophical perspective towards the ontological state of being. Similar to Heidegger, in order to understand being in the world, he refrains from any stereotypical and utilitarian outlook on it, and ignores the presuppositions. In his final Collection, Sepehri's earnest endeavors to understand the reality of existence are evident. Yet, although he eventually confesses that he has not completely understood the meaning of existence, he never despairs.

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Many noteworthy studies have been done to examine the discursive relationship between gender and metaphor in the context of politics, media and literature. In this research, however, I try to investigate the relationship between gender and metaphor specifically in poetical discourse. The main questions of this research are as follows: What is the role of gender in the production and selection of metaphors in the poems by Shamloo and Moshiri? And also can we claim that metaphor is an instrument for representation of sexism in given poems? Research data are extracted from poems by Shamloo and Moshiri and they are analyzed based on Charteris-Black’s discourse theory of metaphor. The results of research indicate that there are manifestations of sexism in these poems, but the degree of sexism in the poems of Shamloo is higher than Moshiri’s. The reason is that the semantic domain of war on conceptual metaphors in Shamloo’s poems is more than Moshiri’s. Therefore, the results of the research indicate that the production and selection of metaphors in poems are decided by gender, attitude and thought of poets, as well as their feelings and social atmosphere. Indeed, gender plays an important role in production and selection of metaphors in poems.   

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Non-verbal communications could be a part of visual signs that, because of their importance in interpersonal relationships and transition of meaning, are highly regarded by psychologists and sociologists. One of the major subdivisions of this topic is called "Body Language" that has existed in all human societies since ancient times. These non-verbal signs, some thousands of years old, have cultural and rhetorical functions, with common and sometimes conflicting aspects, in the cultures and social traditions of different tribes. The more ancient and comprehensive the literary context of a piece of research is, the more valuable that analysis in explaining the cultural, social, and even aesthetic aspects of texts will be. Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, as a representative of Iranian culture and thought in prehistoric age up until the Islamic era, can be the best representation of metalingual communicative performance in Iranian cultural history. Due to the prototypic nature of characters in Shahnameh, many of their non-verbal signs can also be considered the archetypal source of the behavioral interactions or body language of the Iranian people when in the context of epic their national and social identities as Iranians are formed. In this article, attempts has been made to decode these obscure and complex cultural concepts by exploring the "body language" in non-linguistic acts of main characters in Shahnameh. The results of this research demonstrate that the body language of characters in Shahnameh is not accidental but totally conscious. Indeed, the purpose has been to draw the attention of the readers to rethink the patterns of individual and social behavior of Iranian and non-Iranian ethnicities so to recognize the cultural identity mainly through irony and symbolism.

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Hardly could any poet, like Al-Mutanabbi, draw to himself the constant attention of scholars, literary man and poets. In this article, we try to find the secret of the admiration that Al-Mutanabbi’s poetry has won and see why he is one of the most preferred poets and considered the prophet of Arab poets. Scholars have studied this issue from various perspectives. In this article, however, I will examine this issue taking a number of points into account: first, two terms of “presence” and “absence” in Sufism, wherein like poetry the emphasis is on intuition; second, concepts such as “experience-near” and “experience-distant” and, finally by relying on this verse of Al-Mutanabbi: “the horse and night and dessert are known to me / also sword, paper and pen”. Al-Mutanabbi by his constant presence in his poetic experience has been able to see so openly what has been hidden from many scholars that this spiritual perception turns into an objective reality to him. We can seek the secret of Al-Mutanabbi’s immortality in the constant presence or, in other words, in his “experience-near” and in his deep wisdom which made his poetry to be considered “the true reference of life”.

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Proverbs as a part of colloquial literature are always nourished by religion, culture, traditions, and philosophical beliefs of a community, and thus they mirror the common beliefs of a people. The frequent repletion of a proverb pregnant with a specific thought makes that type of thought a behavioral pattern and affects the actions and behaviors of the people of a society. In the Iranian society, always two trends in theological rhetoric were dominant; i.e. the Mu'tazila's espousal of free-will and the Ash'ari's advocacy of determinism. However, because governments continually and in different ways have reinforced the Ash'ari’s determinism, these beliefs have penetrated into the mindset and language ​​of the people. This mentality is so widespread that most Persian proverbs reverberate with this deterministic overtone. A similar determinism in ancient Iran is traceable in the creed of Zorvani who knows this through the concept of "bhakht" which is reflected, for example, in belief in absolute determinism, belief in God's judgment, the will of God and the lack of independence to control one’s own destiny. It also led them to misconstrue issues such as trust in God, delegation of authority, and submission to the will of God: misunderstandings that have had damaging consequences for the Iranian culture throughout ages.

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As the most prominent novelist in contemporary Persian prose, Jalal Ale-Ahmad has had great influence on Persian writers, insofar as many writers have followed his suit. Employment of colloquial language is the characteristic style of his fiction. What makes his different, however, is mainly the employment of colloquialism in a subtle, precise and accurate way. Due to the extensive use of colloquial language in his fictions, this article studies terminologies, phrases and figures  such as metonymy, interjection, onomatopoeia, reduplication,  and also argot and proverb. Having defined these components in his selected works, the authors of this article will put forth some examples and, in multiple tables, illustrate their frequencies. According to a precise examination of his novels, we concluded that among different types of speech, respectively, the metaphoric phrases, argot, assimilation and then reduplication have the highest frequency in Al-e-Ahmad’s prose. He writes in broken Persian to convey the sense of colloquial language in his novels. Substitution and reduction are the most frequent methods he uses when he writes in broken Persian. Interestingly, this frequent colloquial style in his writings has led to a widespread popularity of his novels among the people.

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“Borrowing” is a lingual process that is studied in diachronic linguistics. In this process a language borrows elements from another language. This process usually occurs in areas that two languages make contact with each other. In a dialect spoken in South Khorasan the language borrowing happens. Arabs living in this part of Iran probably have immigrated in the early centuries of Islam. In this paper, the process of borrowing the verb “ast” and its varieties in “Sarab” village will be studied. In this village, this Farsi copular verb is used in three ways: est (with the phonetic, morphological and semantic transformation), hast (without any transformation) and mest (as a participle). In Arabic dialect of Sarab “ast” and its varieties are used in three modes of predictive, subjunctive and imperative. The use of Arabic identifiers in construction of “ast” is different in this dialect and its Farsi structure.
 

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The terms “majmūʻe”, “safīne”, and “jong” are presently used in the senses which may differ from their past meanings. Some related terms in Arabic and Persian languages, such as “bayāż”, “jarīde”, even “korrāse”, “daftar”, “mofrad”, and “jozv” have been coined for special concepts, which are hardly definable in some cases. Therefore, acquiring a relative perception of these terms, with regard to their application in the texts and documents of each period, is indispensably necessary. Some of these terms have been inserted into each other’s semantic fields or have lost their exact meanings in various periods; therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to their semantic evolution. In this paper, firstly the oldest uses of the three basic terms “majmūʻe”, “safīne”, and “jong” are studied in Persian texts up to the end of the ninth century A.H. For this purpose, the literati and poets’ references in the texts, and the old anthologies (safīnes and jongs) are examined to clarify the meanings of the terms and their semantic changes during several periods. In addition, the relationship between the terms and their common uses in other eras are referred to in brief.
 

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One of the stylistic features of Hafez’s sonnets is the repetition of a part of the meaning of the first line in the second line. His knowledge of the rhetorical and semantic relations of vocabularies enabled him to repeat the meaning with the least verbal repetition. One of the ways that has helped him to achieve this goal is replicating the concepts in two parts of the couplet based on rhetorical relations between them. The replicated concept, in addition to referring to the first concept or a part of the meaning of that, retains its original meaning. We call this method "Rhetorical Replica" (Badal Bilaqi). In this research, based on the three traditional offices of rhetoric, we have categorized different relations existing between the two sides of the replica. In Hafez’s poetry, methods of arranging the “rhetorical replica” vary. Sometimes Hafez substitutes a few concepts for each other in a verse and creates several rhetorical replicas. Sometimes he creates several rhetorical relations between two concepts, and extents the domain of significance. Also, occasionally he replaces a concept with multiple references which generate numerous significance and ambiguity in the poem. In what follows, through examples from Hafez, the authors of this paper categorize and explain the multiplicity and diversity of rhetorical replicas in his poetry. The frequency of rhetorical relations on the two sides of the rhetorical replica in the three different offices of rhetoric is as follows: invention, 3%; arrangement, 69%; and style 28%. About one third of Hafez’s poetry contains rhetorical replica. And, the high frequency indicates that this is a stylistic feature in Hafez’s poetry.
 

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Semiotics is one of the theories of reading literary texts.  This theory systematically studies the causes and factors involved in the process of production and interpretation of the signs. One of the main topics in semiotics deals with implicit meaning wherein the scholars examine the implied significance of the signs in addition to their explicit significance. Sadegh Chubak’s Tangsir is one of the most successful contemporary Iranian literary novels. Most of the events in this fiction, characters, actions, scenes, and names have implicit and connotative meanings that by analyzing them, the underlying layers of the texts will be discovered. This study attempts to investigate the implicit significance of the novel. To this end, first, a brief explanation of semiotics and implicit significance is put forth. Then the implicit significance of Tangsir will be presented in three categories of: the anticolonial, sociological and mythical. The results of this study indicate that the implicit anticolonial significance of the novel raises the issue of the conspiracies of British colonialism in the southern regions of Iran. The sociological significance of the novel portrays a community drowned in misery, poverty, suppression, and oppression. And the mythical significance of the novel indicates the ritual of sacrificing a cow in Mithraism and the archetype of crossing water in myths.
 

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The Discourse of the power of Genghiz was formulated in a specific social and political context. Although it was well articulated in the seventh century AH, its roots go back even before its discursive life, that is, to the Seljuk period, especially to the attack of the "Ghoses" to Khorasan and the "Kharazmshahi" period. In this article, we examine the development and dominance of discourse of the power of Genghiz based on Ata-Malik Jovayni’s historical narrative in Tārīkh-i Jahāngushāy. To this end and considering from among different approaches, Laclau and Mouffe’s discursive approach proved to be the most effective in examining the development and evolution of the discourse. The relationship between power holders and writers has always been central and Ata-malik Jovayni is no exception. In the position of an observer and historian, he recorded the adversities brought by the Mongols, while he remained loyal to the Mongol court. The point is that Jovayni adopted an approach different from other historians, especially Bayhaghi, in delineating the characteristics of Genghiz, the central figure of the text. The main task of the historian is to select a particular narrative from among available narratives. What is Jovayni’s method of narration for establishing the meaning of his text? What comes out of this history is the reverberation of Genghiz’s unparalleled power in the regions under his rule which is different from other voices narrating the horrible events in Tārīkh-i Jahāngushāy.  In the end, we conclude that, according to the aforementioned theory, the text of Tārīkh-i Jahāngushāy has a consistent semantic system, and this ability helps to fixate the meaning of the text. This harmonious system functions to modify Genghiz’s image and justify his violence.
 

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Khosrow and Shirin is the second of five long narrative poems by Nezami and is one of the finest love stories in Persian literature. This story has been examined so far from different aspects and with different approaches. One of the approaches overlooked in the analysis of this story is the process of individuation from Carl Jung's point of view. Therefore the aim of the present paper is to psychoanalyze the development of the character of Khosrow Parviz and other central characters. This will be done through analytical-descriptive method while drawing upon the archetypes of anima and animus, shadow, persona, anima, wise old man, etc. The result of the study suggests that to achieve the individualism and unification of Khosrow's personality, as the hero of the story, it is necessary for him to enter the unconscious so that through the symbolic indexes of the inner self and the forces that produce consciousness, the hero would obtain self-knowledge, and his way to throne and Shirin is smoothed.
 

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The Reduplications are made by repeating part of the base. The repeated part does not make sense and will never be used alone and is just popular in spoken language. In recent times, they have been used in some texts of poetry and prose, in particular, in stories written in vernacular. This research, with a historical approach, and with an analytical-explanatory method, examines the information obtained from literary and historical sources; and while analyzing the use of reduplication in Persian language and literature, it investigates three hypotheses: first, the effect of the changing of the face and meaning of the ancient Persian vocabulary on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; second, the effect of the Arabic syntax on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; and third, the effect of Arabic vocabulary and synonyms on the formation of reduplication in Persian language and literature
According to the findings of this research, the history of the use of reduplication dates back to the thirteenth century AH. Most of the compositions, from the first to the thirteenth century AH, are seen in poetic and prose works, and the writers of dictionaries have described them as examples of reduplication but in fact they are synonyms connected by conjunctives which due to a change of face and passage of time are mistakenly claimed to be reduplication. Reduplication has been introduced into Persian language since the thirteenth century AH. This was due to the prevalence of Arabic vocabulary in Persian language and also people’s habits of using synonyms in speaking. Along with developments in Persian prose and the tendency of writers to simplification and vernacularism, these compositions were introduced into Persian texts, especially satirical fictional works. 

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Fantastic literature is one of the most popular genres in the world. Due to its wide scope, literary theoreticians have put forth numerous theories to explain its various dimensions. On the other hand, many Persian literary texts make use of these features, but they have not been sufficiently investigated yet. In the field of mysticism, due to the connection with supernatural affairs, numerous works have been created by the mystics, which are related to fantastic and supernatural issues. Kashf al-Asrar is of this kind, which includes the writer's revelations and spiritual journey. In this spiritual journey, he encounters super-real creatures and visits fantastic places, and most importantly, has meetings and talks with God; a range of events that gives a fantastic, super-real and phantasmagoric structure to the book. In this article, in addition to explaining the super-real and fantastic literature, using the elements and methods used by Ruzbehan Baqli, such as symbol, metaphor, etc., the authors describe and explain the elements of the fantastic literature in Kashf al-Asrar. It is said that, in order to explain this journey and spiritual experience, Ruzbehan uses various tools in three realms of the inner, outer, and super-real worlds to illustrate his connection with the unseen world and its extraordinary creatures.
 

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Despite showing an overtly simple structure, the semantic process in classic literary-narrative discourse conforms to complicated semiotic systems. As a result, semio-semantics is deemed as one of the most scientific, reliable tools since it helps intradiscursive semio-textual propositions be phenomenologically, and even epistemologically, analyzed. Consequently, the narrative discourse in “The Prince and His Companions” is studied in order to find how much sign elements have semantic capability and how effective they have been in revealing the narrator’s thoughts and discourse.
This study is a library research, trying to address a) what situation and function linguistic backgrounds and parameters have in quality and fluidity of discursive meaning in line with narrator’s mindset; and b) how sign-individuals exist in the semantic process and epistemological discourse. In general, findings reveal that the narrator has intentionally formed this narrative discourse, compiling all semiotic systems and elements in an attempt to describe deterministic mental representation.