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The Reduplications are made by repeating part of the base. The repeated part does not make sense and will never be used alone and is just popular in spoken language. In recent times, they have been used in some texts of poetry and prose, in particular, in stories written in vernacular. This research, with a historical approach, and with an analytical-explanatory method, examines the information obtained from literary and historical sources; and while analyzing the use of reduplication in Persian language and literature, it investigates three hypotheses: first, the effect of the changing of the face and meaning of the ancient Persian vocabulary on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; second, the effect of the Arabic syntax on the formation of reduplication in Persian language; and third, the effect of Arabic vocabulary and synonyms on the formation of reduplication in Persian language and literature
According to the findings of this research, the history of the use of reduplication dates back to the thirteenth century AH. Most of the compositions, from the first to the thirteenth century AH, are seen in poetic and prose works, and the writers of dictionaries have described them as examples of reduplication but in fact they are synonyms connected by conjunctives which due to a change of face and passage of time are mistakenly claimed to be reduplication. Reduplication has been introduced into Persian language since the thirteenth century AH. This was due to the prevalence of Arabic vocabulary in Persian language and also people’s habits of using synonyms in speaking. Along with developments in Persian prose and the tendency of writers to simplification and vernacularism, these compositions were introduced into Persian texts, especially satirical fictional works. 

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Fantastic literature is one of the most popular genres in the world. Due to its wide scope, literary theoreticians have put forth numerous theories to explain its various dimensions. On the other hand, many Persian literary texts make use of these features, but they have not been sufficiently investigated yet. In the field of mysticism, due to the connection with supernatural affairs, numerous works have been created by the mystics, which are related to fantastic and supernatural issues. Kashf al-Asrar is of this kind, which includes the writer's revelations and spiritual journey. In this spiritual journey, he encounters super-real creatures and visits fantastic places, and most importantly, has meetings and talks with God; a range of events that gives a fantastic, super-real and phantasmagoric structure to the book. In this article, in addition to explaining the super-real and fantastic literature, using the elements and methods used by Ruzbehan Baqli, such as symbol, metaphor, etc., the authors describe and explain the elements of the fantastic literature in Kashf al-Asrar. It is said that, in order to explain this journey and spiritual experience, Ruzbehan uses various tools in three realms of the inner, outer, and super-real worlds to illustrate his connection with the unseen world and its extraordinary creatures.
 

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Despite showing an overtly simple structure, the semantic process in classic literary-narrative discourse conforms to complicated semiotic systems. As a result, semio-semantics is deemed as one of the most scientific, reliable tools since it helps intradiscursive semio-textual propositions be phenomenologically, and even epistemologically, analyzed. Consequently, the narrative discourse in “The Prince and His Companions” is studied in order to find how much sign elements have semantic capability and how effective they have been in revealing the narrator’s thoughts and discourse.
This study is a library research, trying to address a) what situation and function linguistic backgrounds and parameters have in quality and fluidity of discursive meaning in line with narrator’s mindset; and b) how sign-individuals exist in the semantic process and epistemological discourse. In general, findings reveal that the narrator has intentionally formed this narrative discourse, compiling all semiotic systems and elements in an attempt to describe deterministic mental representation.
 

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With the development of Bakhtin's theory of polyphony in literary criticism, the kind of attitude to literary texts has changed, and according to the needs of modern society, this discourse became the focus of attention of thinkers and literary theorists. Polyphony, with its own meta-lingual potentials, brings with it a new approach, a rethinking of the audience, so that the reader can have a new range of experiences. In this research, employing Bakhtinian dialogical logic, it is possible to examine Sange Saboor as polyphonic and dialogical. Sange Saboor has a special structure that differs from other works of Chubak and utilizes components such as the plurality of voices, the use of stream of consciousness, internal  monologue, intertextuality,  two-way discourse, literary schools, etc. The author of this article attempts to find the features that turn the text polyphonic and explore their function. 
 

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Qotol-al-Qolob is an organismic and rich text that has been very effective in stabilizing the Sufist discourse. This is because of the flow of Sufism articulated in the late second century in the context of religion and passed through contradictory discourses such as jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy and then emerged in a period that radical rationalism, jurisprudential controversy, philosophical conflicts as well as political and social quarrels spead over the entire Islamic world. The ideologues of Sufism highlighted absent and separated propositions with the help of the logic of discursive difference and by studying and recognizing dominant approaches. They were gradually able to successfully integrate and dominate the Sufist discourse. This is visualized in Qotol-al-Qolob which we consider to be the confluence of two scholarly and insightful discourses. To achieve this important point we use the method and discourse analysis of La Clau and Mouffe and we show how Abutaleb Makki could renovate the absent, excluded, and depleted propositions of the jurisprudential discourse by the use of interpretation model.
 

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In his lyricism and eloquence, Hussein Monzavi benefited from the great heritage of lyrical and epic literature, poetic images, fictions, and religious allusions in order to create imagery and expand the meaning and themes of his poems. The Divan of Hafiz is one of the main sources of influence on Monzavi’s poems in terms of form, meaning, and musical coherence. He also benefited from borrowing Hafiz’s clauses, rhythm, allusions, verses, and sonnets. Love and the hardship in its path, pledge of trust, drinking merrily, and social issues are the themes in Monzavi’s poems which were under direct influence of Hafiz. Monzavi’s imagery of love and its manifestations has similarities with Hafez’s poetry. The present paper is an endeavor to investigate the influence of Hafiz on Monzavi in terms of form, rhythm, meaning, love, the image of the beloved, and imagery. The findings indicate that Monzavi benefited from Hafiz’s single elements, rhythms, and themes in about two hundred instances.
 

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The use of ambiguity and amphibology in speech, by arranging the setting for multiplicity of significations and delaying the process of meaning comprehension, leaves a significant impression on the creation of  artistic aspects of the literary work and to the extent that the speech is free of such expressive techniques, it turns into a single meaning proposition, and its artistic worth is diminished. In this paper, based on such a presupposition, we have revisited the poems of Hazin Lahiji (1103-1180 A.H.) and examined the multiplicity of significations in his poems at both lexical and textual levels. At the lexical level, some figures of speech such as amphibology and its types, coincidence, and derivative puns pass beyond the limits of significations of the couplet and open new horizons of meaning to the audience. This study confirms that 192 cases of amphibologies were used in his poem. At both the sentence and couplet levels we classified the types of ambiguities and multiplicity of significations and the causes of their emergence into three categories of linguistic, logical and tonal and in each category we investigated and analyzed the techniques used by the poet to create ambiguity and various significations.  
 

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The study of mythological and epic works, which narrate the thoughts and ideas of the predecessors and express the history and culture of people’s lives, from the perspective of practical wisdom is a strong evidence to prove the existence of moral principles and customs in ancient Iranian society that continued after Islam. In this research, Banugoshasb-nameh poemswere studied with the aim of analyzing the position of women in practical wisdom. The library research method was used, and the approach of the paper is descriptive-analytical. The results show that Banugoshasb’s actions and behavior are consistent with the components of practical wisdom and she can be called the model of a successful woman in the culture of Iranian ethnic groups who has transmitted moral virtues in a heroic manner. From the point of view of practical wisdom in the field of personal morality, the lady is the wise, brave, chaste, believing and committed daughter of Rostam, the representative of the lady heroines who has become a model of virtue through her behavior and actions. In the field of house management and civil policy, the high position of the lady in the family represents the value of women in the original Iranian culture. Regardless of the attitude of the patriarchal society, she has an independent and militant personality whose femininity has not caused her to be weak in doing things, irresolute and incapable, compared to men. In the family, she is a righteous, brave, and responsible child who acts at father’s discretion (the house manager).
 

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The geometrical complexity of some images, especially Indian-style images, which are not found in the field of traditional expression and which have not been mentioned by scholars in the historical tradition, is such that one must use a suitable tool to analyze them. In the present study, conducted by quantitative statistical analysis, first, frequency was usedto examine and compare the number of single and compound techniques in 500 verses of Bidel’s sonnets (which were randomly selected from all over his divan).Then, the three compound techniques of “irony metaphor”, “metaphorical amphibology metaphor” and “metaphorical amphibology irony simile” were examined in the structure of images of Bidel.The results of this study show that in both verses of Bidel’s poems, there is almost onecompound technique; additionally, onethird of Bidel’s images are created with the help of these techniques, and this means that by contenting ourselves with the four elements of traditional expression (simile, metaphor, irony, and metonymy) and ignoring the literary tools of compounding, the analysis and interpretation of Bidel’spoems will be incomplete.
 

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In the semantic functionalism approach, language constructs are examined according to three specific views: Ideational, interpersonal, and textual. These three, calledmetafunctions, form the basis of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Halliday, the founder of systemic functional linguistics, believes that the patterns of experience and mental concepts of the creators of works are reflected in the verbal processesof ideationalmetafunction. Therefore, by examining the types of processes, and the factors and circumstances that create them, one can become aware of the ideas and experiences of the creators of literary works and analyze the factors influencing their formation.Considering this aim and adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, Ebtehaj lyrics, based on their constructive discourse, were divided into three historical periods and after determining the frequency and describing the function of verbal processes as astylistic feature their constituent factors were analyzed. The findings show the extensive application of the material process and then the relational process to other systemic functional linguistics processes.The reason for the high frequency and type of application of the mentioned processes, as well as the small representation of other main and secondary processes ofideationalmetafunction in Ebtehaj sonnets should be considered in factors such as the effect of meaning on the formation of the language of the work, political and social changes of the poet’s time,his special mood and stylistics, the importance of the role of the audience in his thought, as well as his drawing inspiration from earlier and contemporary poets.

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Boasting (Mofakhereh in Persian) as a poetic theme or as a sub-genre has a strong presence in the books of poems of classical Persian poets. Adopting an analytical approach, this research attempted at analyzing ‘boasting’ in poems of Manouchehri Damghani, Sanaei Ghaznavi, and Khaghani Shervani based on Pierre Bourdieu’s field theory. To do so, after extracting instances of their ‘boasting’ odes and considering the historical and social issues of their times and their different habitus and mindsets, we tried to analyze the poems based on Bourdieu’s four literary field principles (habitus, capital, struggle, and disinterestedness). The results showed that Manouchehri, due to his inclination to the power filed, and to make a name and a living and to stabilize his position, used his art and poetry for boasting. He did not observe the principle of disinterestedness in the literary field which attempts at purifying literature from personal intentions. As a result, he was pushed to the margin. But as the power field changed during the second Ghaznavid and Seljuk periods and some new problems and instabilities affected poets’ conditions, poets such as Sanaei and Khaghani distanced themselves from the power field, due to their specific habitus, and attempted at purifying literature and fighting the power field. From the two poets, Khaghani was more successful due to his disinterestedness and observance of the rules of the literary field.

 

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Although many years have passed since its inception, the critical correction of Shahnameh, as one of the greatest literary and epic works of Iran and the world, has a long way to go. The vast volume of this great work and the wide variety of the issues presented in it, alongside its language antiquity, require that in order to reach as close as possible to the poet’s original creation, all the stories, verses and words of it be reviewed and reexamined and scholars with various specialties and approaches comment on its various aspects. From the grammatical pint of view, this article discusses some verses from different parts of Shahnameh. The commonality of these verses is in their optative verbs. In the first part, the pronoun-constructed verbs of Shahnameh are discussed. The second part introduces a rare verb construction in which the optative morpheme of the third person singular is ‘iyi’. The last part is about the optative form of bāyistan “have to, must” which requires an enclitic pronoun complement in some of its constructions. These parts were studied and analyzed by measuring the recordings of the manuscripts and by analyzing the previous readings. In the case of pronoun-constructed verbs, the form ending in ‘ti’ was suggested everywhere, and in the other two cases, based on the manuscript recordings and relying on grammatical points, the correctness of the readings presented before the publication by Khaleghi Motlagh, was emphasized.


 

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One of the areas in literary studies whose definition and principles have been subject of considerable disagreements among philosophers, writers, and linguists is poetry and its nature. Differences of perspectives in defining poetry are a result of differences in methodologies, intellectual fields, and elaboration of poetry function. The present research takes a descriptive–analytic approach to reviewing the existing definitions of poetry, and through studying different types of poetry in Persian literature and, by basing the discussion on indicators such as the speaker’s mentality, listener’s mentality, language, genre studies, various discourses of each era, the prominent literary element, and critiquing the masterpiece-oriented perspective, attempts to question the perspective which considers poetics to be a definite and non-historical phenomenon, and introduces poetics as a fluid, relative, and history-dependent phenomenon which requires a different definition in various eras based on the abovementioned indicators. Through such an approach to poetics, demarcating verse and poetry based on similar indicators and in all eras will not enjoy scientific rigor and credit. Based on the perspectives elaborated in the present research, a new poetics must be proposed in each era to be able to provide a definition of poetry in that era. 

 

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Kalila and Dimnah is one of the common literary and cultural works of India and Iran and many of its contents were written based on the Aryan thought of these two peoples. In the present article, the issue of social stratification in the chapters “The Lion and the Bull” and “Investigation of the Conduct of Dimnah” has been analyzed with a mytho-sociological approach and with a descriptive-analytical method. The mytho-sociological analysis is a method that can reveal the mythological roots of some sociological concepts. The ideas of Georges Dumézil show that classification among Indo-European peoples was one of the main structures of creating social order. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore also hold such beliefs in their sociological studies. The analysis of the aforementioned chapters of Kalila and Dimnah with these two mythological and sociological theories shows that the structure of the story of “The Lion and the Bull” is consistent with the class structure of Indo-European societies; a class structure that does not tolerate class mobility in any way and as it is clear in the “Investigation of the Conduct of Dimnah” chapter, those who engage in class mobility will have no end but destitution and destruction. In the studied chapters, Dimnah is the agent of failed class mobility, Kalila is the defender and acceptor of stratification as an undeniable reality; and the lion, lion’s mother, and the panther, who belong to the elite class, are the protectors and maintainers of stratification as a regulatory structure. The stratification in these chapters is another form of the mythical tripartite functions of Indo-European societies, which itself has become the cause of the formation of social classes in these societies. 

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In order to understand the meaning of existence, Heidegger analyzes the existential possibilities of the German word for existence, i.e. Dasein, and among these possibilities, he pays special attention to the relationship between language and existence. In addition to speaking, he considers silence as one of the linguistic possibilities. According to Heidegger, linguistic silence has the potential to reveal existence much more broadly than just speaking. This revelation of existence and hearing the voice of existence in silence gives it an interpretive quality, which Heidegger calls hermeneutics. Since in our mystical heritage, Mawlana Jalaluddin Muḥammad (Rumi) speaks of silence and reticence in most of his ghazals, the authors of this article believe that in the light of Heidegger's conception of silence, new horizons of this concept can be opened up in the ghazals of Shams in order to show its interpretive and hermeneutic features in the following propositions: “from the unworldliness of Dasein to the annihilation of the truth-seeker in the general sense and its connection with silence”, “from Dasein's transition from the linguistic position to the linguistic annihilation of the truth-seeker in the specific sense and its connection with silence”, “the hermeneutics of silence and the reception of genuine speech from Dasein to the truth-seeker”, and “Rumi's hermeneutic silence and the reception of genuine speech” as proof of this claim. By proposing genuine silence, Rumi provides a ground for the soul and the world of existence to speak up and to display the shortcomings and inadequacies of language and to reveal the secrets of the universe. Attention to the hermeneutic aspect of silence in the ghazals of Shams distinguishes the present article from the existing research and a new achievement in the field of Rumi research will emerge.