Norm-breaking in the field of literature, like other areas of human knowledge, is the province of the talented. Norm-breakings Hafiz undertook in his ghazals came to be the source of a movement with a good many imitators. His norm-breakings took place in form, meaning and/or in the possible relationships between the two. Critiquing the social mores was one of his trademark iconoclastic practices in the realm of content. Another norm-breaking was inventing rhetorical subtleties whose novelty was particularly conspicuous in the realm of pun. It was an innovation in creating varied links of signs on the horizontal axis of poetry—an innovation resulted from Hafez’s contemplations on the emotional meanings of words conjured up in various cultural aspects. The harmony of meaning background and emotional background with the general music dominating them—a linkage created by meter, rhyme and juxtaposition of words—is another feature in Hafez’s poetry. The impressing value and emotional intimacy of these elements are palpable in his poetry. The most remarkable norm-breaking in Hafez’s ghazals may be the way in which the scattered meanings clandestinely interact through a ghazal; this has caused most scholars to regard it as polysemous and lacking in terms of logical relationship among couplets. These couplets, albeit distantly related with each other, are connected deep inside. Besides demonstrating Hafez’s rhetorical, artistic as well as semantic norms-breakings, the present paper shows that in spite of his poetry seeming scattered, which is a result of distant and far-reached associations in Hafez’s culturally and experientially loaded mind, there is an inner relationship among them that can be understood by transforming the norm-breaking propositions to norm-enforcing ones. A ghazal by Saadi is juxtaposed to one by Hafez to illustrate the issue at hand.

The authors of modern stories for the deliverance from the deformity of the new civilization attend the inner world, which is more expanded than the external world. They disregard specific philosophies in art and life and try to display the subjective and psychological personalities. Moreover, instead of revealing social objective challenges of the characters, they aim at displaying the contents of the mind’s inner world. However, to describe the inner world and the mind with the same writing methods used formerly is not possible. Modern writers in order to show the twisted layers of the mind and its world have tried to introduce new ways of narration and story writing. Of course, using such methods may cause some complexity in the novel, but the writer does that deliberately to bring the structure of his novel close to the structure of the mind.This article is a library research highlighting the nature of the mind and presenting one of the first Persian modern subjective novelsShazdeEhtejab by HushangGolshiri. It attempts to discuss how this novel shows the hidden world of the characters and investigates in depth the basic techniques that reveal the mind and the innerworld of the characters.

Using indirect explanation and symbolism has a long history in Persian literature. Classic poets have used many symbols to explain mystical concepts. In contemporary periods, however, the insight of the poets is deeper than that of traditional poets as they pay more attention to political and social issues. Accordingly, the symbols have changed so that in contemporary poetry they are used for expressing political and social thoughts. Political and social symbolism is a new phenomenon in Persian poetry that begins with Nima and is developed by his followers, especially Ahmad Shamlu. Shamlu was not interested in explicit words, so in order to disseminate the clusters of meaning in his poems he used symbols and symbolism. In his deep and significant symbolism Shamluhas attempted to change the repeated and old symbols of classic poetry and to give them new meaning. This comparative study attempts to look at the different meanings of symbols in Shamlu’s poetry and to explain how the poet has used them.

Poetry is an event that happens in language. In fact, the poet in his poetry works with language and the reader understands the difference between his poetic language and the common language. The Purpose of the poem is to create harmony among its different elements and one way to establish this harmony is through the phonetic structure of poetry. The Formalists and structuralists believe that the basis of poetry is its structure and in their structural studies they give more importance to the phonetic structure.In this article attempt is made to investigate the phonetic structure and the classification of all methods of forming this structure in the poetry of QaysarAminpour as well as the literary devices that shape the phonetic structure. Aminpour is one of the contemporary poets that adopts a classical form and is one of the followers of Nima. He uses the multiple language possibilities to add to the music of his poetry. The phonetic construction in Aminpour’s poetry has three levels: phonetic balance, lexical balance and syntactic balance. He looks at the special features of different components forming the word—phoneme to sentence—and creates artistic beauty in his poetry. He applies various techniques, such as repetition, rhyme, and pun to add to the beauty of the phonetic structure of the poems

In Persian language and generally in all other languages connectives are considered among the most important devices in the coherence of texts. However, there are some other elements such as adverbs and prepositions that operate in the text and function like conjunctions. These are only a few of the elements that connect sentences in a text to each other. We can classify these elements from different perspectives. One of these perspectives isHalliday’s functional theory. In his theoryHalliday calls the semantic, verbal, syntactic and logical connections of the sentences in text coherence. From this point of view, in addition to connectives, the other factors that affect the coherence of the text are reference, displacement, elision, and lexical cohesion. Because of the extent of the subject, the researchers in this article study only one of these factors, namely connection. Among different factors of connection, only non-temporal connectives that include simple, compound, explicative and allegorical connectives; contrastive connection factors including simple and compound connectives; and causal connection factors such as the common and reverse will be studied.

Persian is a language that accepts combination.This tendency has made some of the poets and authors try to create new combinations. Nizami of Ganje is one of the poets in whose works hundreds of these new combinations are seen. On the one hand because of his high intelligence and talent and on the other hand because the people of his time looked for new subjects and new expressions, and also due to the natural evolvement of language, he has paid special attention to this issue. Although Nizami does not limit himself to certain combinations, on the whole the frequency of allusive combinations is high in his works. One of these combinations is that of"kabkshekastan", which the narrator of Ganje has used in Khosro and Shirin and Sharafname three times. The meanings written for this allusive combination in dictionaries are as follows: "to flirt", "to efface the track" and "to hide secrets". Although on the construction of this combination no explanation has been given, we may offer a few conjectures. What we attempt to explain in this research concerns this combination and its meaning in dictionaries. The research is an endeavor to find out how much these meanings are reliable and if there is another possible meaning for this term.

Many researchers in the field of socio-linguistics, sociology and feminism have done research on the principle of language showing that there are some differences between the language of men and women. The question is that whether gender plays any role in literary language(poetry) and besides phonetic, lexical and syntactic levels of language ifimages, such as simile and metaphor, are gender-oriented and are influenced by the mentality of women poets.In this researchthe influence of gender on the use of simile and metaphor in the poetry of ten contemporary Iranian women poets have been studied. First, one or two collections of the poetry of these poets have been randomly chosen, and secondthe two main figures of simile and metaphor have been analyzed in respect of gender. It is concluded that due to differences between men and women, such as their social and biological background, women poets use gender-oriented similes and metaphors. Moreover, they use these types of similes and metaphors to express their romantic and sensual-emotional tendencies.

Having published his first novel, Ali Mohammad Afghani (born in 1925, Kermanshah) reached the top of his literary career. Considering the dearth of creative literary activities in the years following the coup of 18^th August 1953 and other social, literary and historical reasons discussed in the paper, the novel (written in 1961) was remarkably acclaimed by the readers.Following this acclamation, literary critics also appreciated the author as the greatest contemporary novelist and his work as the greatest novel of the century. Although Afghani wrote several other novels, because of certain reasons discussedin the article he could never regain the acceptance of the readers.Now after half a century of the publication of the novel and its becoming one of the classics in the history of contemporary novel-writing in Iran, we have a new study of the role Ali Mohammad Afghani and his outstanding book in the formation and development of Persian novel.Moreover, we try to show how he has been affected by earlier narrative literature and his impact on subsequent novels.In order to clarify the reasons behind the books popularity with the readers and its position among Persian novels, the sociological and literary dimensions of the work are discussed in this article.

Why did Rumi have empathy with the rulers of Seljuk and Mongols invaders in Konya, while Mongols destroyed Baghdad, the capital of Islamic Caliphate, and killed the Caliph? This question has remained an enigma to many Rumi scholars. This paper examines the political behavior of Rumi as an influential jurist and mystic, exploring the theoretical foundations of his behaviors. To clarify the issue, I have examined Rumi’s political behavior based on historical evidence at three levels: (1) the structure of power in Konya and Rumi’s relation with his contemporary politicians; (2) the relation between Rumi’s political behavior and his political unconscious; and (3) the cause of the inconsistency between Rumi’s political actions and his political thought. I have concluded that the verse “obligation to obey the Muslim Sultan” in the Quran acts as an ideological axiom that justifies appealing to cruel rulers by Muslims and cooperating with them. Ideology as a huge force prevents Rumi and his society from understanding this fundamental contradiction. In other words, ideology naturalizes all the contradictions for its followers.

The study of binary oppositions in art and literature has attracted some contemporary linguists, mythologists, narratologists and semiologists. They maintain that one may get a better understanding of the literary work through these binary oppositions. In this study attempt is made to have another look at the poems of Shams al-Din Muhammad Hafiz by considering binary opposition as one of the central elements and main features of his poems. For this purpose, 100poems have been selected randomly.In these poems 637 binary oppositions are seen indicating that in each sonnet there are 4 to 6 cases of binary opposition. The binary oppositions are grouped in three parts: verbal and lexical (35%), semantic and conceptual (54%), and literary (11%). Semantic pairs are repeated more often in the poems of Hafiz, which give his Ghazalstheir distinctive feature. 

In this paper, Persian short storyis studied in the light ofTzvetanTodorov’s Narrative Theory. The hypothesis of this research is that there are various types of relations among the sequences, and each relation serves one or more functions. For this purpose, seven collections of Persianshort stories written by outstanding writers were selected. These collections consist of 63 short stories, beginningwith Jamalzadeh, the founder of this genre in Persian literature, and ending with Ahmad Mahmoud covering a period of fifty years. After analyzing deductively the selected stories it is demonstrated that there are many kinds of relations among the sequences of narratives, such as contrastive relation, memorial relation and stichomythic relation. In addition, each of these relations serves some functions, such as prescience, foregrounding of the story’s content and creation of suspense.

In modern aesthetics, the form of a poem is not enough to explain its artistic beauty. Therefore, a there is a comparative tendency to study the effect of the social environment on the personality and the taste of the poet, which leads tothe study of literary works on the basis of psychology and sociology of literature.

The researchers in this paper followa descriptive-analytical approach and employsome interdisciplinary sciences, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and linguistics, to study the aestheticelement of color in the poetry of one of the most prominent Modernist poets of Tajikistan, FarzanehKhojandi. It is concluded that the poet is influenced by the colorful social and cultural environment of Tajikistan and employ color to describe his ethical views in the best way. Moreover, besides using the dominant symbols in Persian poetry, he introduces new symbols and diction in regard of colors and thus enriches Persian language and poetry

Some of the scribes of manuscripts of the poems of Hafiz, including the scribes of the ninth century AH, due to their haste or because they thought little of the importance of diacritical points in the words, did not care for the right position of point in writing or even sometimes omitted it.For the editor of the poetry of Hafiz, especially in his reference toand use of the manuscripts, the problem is that when a word whose first letter, for example, has no pointhe can neither put the word among those manuscripts that take the word as a positive verb nor among those where the word is written as a negative verb.The three examples given in this article show that the editors of the poetry of Hafiz could not come to an agreement regarding the writing of the word in question on the basis of a certain meaningor interpretation of some of the verses of Hafiz. Indeed interest in one reading or following one editionhave made this agreement impossible.

Shohar-e AhooKhanoum, written by Ali Mohammad Afghani, is an excellent andexciting novel which potentiallyreflects the social problems. Due to its capacity in representing the specific social problems, this novel has gained a special status in Iran's contemporary narrative literature. The essentialelements of Realism in this novel show that its writer has been greatly influenced by the principles of Realism, and his basic techniques in the development and organization of the story are primarily Realistic. Afghani tries to adapt the events, characters and other aspects of his novel to the main principles of Realism representing the social realities on the basis of his own observations and experiences. By creating lifelike characters and focusing on social events, the writer puts a clear mirror in front of the reader in which he can observe the problems of the society. This article is mainly an attempt to discuss the Realistic aspects of this novel in order to unravel the hidden aspects of events.  

The narrative focus has a significant role in the analysis of those techniques that the storyteller uses in creating his own stories. The point of view, with respect to its semantic extension in modern narratives, is a special aspect by which the narrator shapes the temporal, cognitive – emotional and ideological components of his story and the narratee is sometimes led to read the text when the narrator changes and creates various points of view and presents different views. Therefore, the story finds a dynamic process by an interaction among the narrator, the character and the reader. In the story of Rostam and Esfandiyar, the narrator portrays the setting, incidents, characters and their actions, thoughts and inner feelings in an aesthetic and beautiful way and this is done by using different and changeable narrative focuses. In addition, the narrator provides presentation, evaluation and judgment of the story by his absence or presence in some parts of the story and also by combination of two ways of narration and drama. Furthermore, sometimes the narratee is led to a more effective and sincere inspiration of the story by narrating the story from the characters’ point of view.  In addition, the narrator expresses his own doctrines and special ideology by using non-narrator focus or the characters’ words; as a result he prepares the situation for the presentation and conjunction of different views or opinions, and in this aspect it equals many modern narratives. The analysis ofa few parts of this story can show Firdausi’s exceptional genius in his creation of this universal masterpiece.

In this research two kinds of critical approaches are introduced and then some examples of these two approaches are selected and discussed. The aim of this article is to consider the critical fields in Constitution period in Iran, which is counted as the turning point in passing from tradition to modernity. The first approach, in-group criticism, is criticism among the members of one group; the second approach, out-group criticism, is done among the members of two different groups. The example selected for the first approach refers to the “Association of the Faculty” and its two members Mohammad TaghiBahar and Abbas EghbalAshtiani, who stand for Neoclassicism. The second example refers to the “Association of the Faculty” and Bahar in particular and Tajaddod-e Tabriz Journal and TaghiRafat at its heads. The latter group represents revolutionary Romanticism. The method of this research is based ontextual analysis.The analysis of the content of these two approaches shows that the in-group approach in Constitution period was more moderate compared tothe out-group approach and sometimes personal prejudices had a role in the process of criticism. There has been difference in taste in the first approach, and in the second approach the difference is in thought and ideas. If approaches like these could have changedinto movements, they could have been useful in criticism of literature and also in widening the field of criticism. These two approaches, however, had been stopped gradually. Moreover, out-group criticism is considered as the opposition of Neoclassicism and Romanticism in Iran. 

Daqayiq al-Shi’r is a Persian rhetorical book which was composed in the eighth century A.H. This book was published by Mohammad KazemEmamsome years ago. However, investigating its different manuscripts, a new version of the work was found which includes some different and new parts in comparison with the published version. Given the genealogical discrepancies of the manuscripts of the work and some other old resources, this article attempts to present some new information about the composer, his patrons and the place of composition of the work

The slaves had an undeniable role among the different social classes regardless of sex, race and color. In this respect the significant presence of Zangi slaves is remarkable. At first, they were only slaves and they had a very hard living and social life. Gradually, they achieved an intellectual and social status with their presence in other communities.They confirmedtheirpresence in the mind and language of the Farsi speakers and entered Persian poetry and poetic allegories. The proof of this claim is the various allegorical tales and proverbs that are based onthe life of slave characters. In this article the importance of the presence of slaves and the structure of lexical-grammaticalaspects of the term slave are discussed and then their race andorigin, sociallife and their entry into the politicalarena are considered. The socio-political presence of the slaves led to their presenceinthefieldofpoetry. The pleasantandunpleasanteffects of the presence of the slaves in Persian poetry have been analyzed and then the numerous evidencesinpoetry have been noted. In the main part of this article, allegorical anecdotes aboutslaveshave been investigated to show various effects of their physical and mentalcharacteristics. Some of theseanecdotes have traditional background,but some others have escaped traditionand, therefore, give a differentimage ofthe slaves

Hebrew-Persian texts are texts which are Persian in language but have written in Hebrew characters. These texts belong to the third century AD and have been written before the Arabic-Persian texts. This is why many of the phonetic, morphological and syntactical features of themiddle period have been kept in Hebrew-Persian texts.One of the major grammatical features that have been preserved in Hebrew-Persian literature isthe specific application ofprepositionssuch asōandpa(d) in middle Persian manner. Someprepositionssuch as ' b'z find new meaning in Hebrew-Persian texts. Someprepositionslike'zmrare foundonly in Hebrew-Persian literature. Since there are no prepositionsinformalmodern Persian, this study can reveal theevolution oftheprepositionsfromthe middleperiodtomodernperiod. In thisarticle, it is shown how the prepositionswhich had remained from themiddlePersianperiodareaffected bythe formalmodern Persianprepositions andgraduallymiddle Persianand Persian prepositions are replaced bymodern Persianprepositions.

One of the new questions that should be studied and discussed in novel is the relationship between language and gender. In this paper, which is an interdisciplinary research, the researchers relying on sociolinguistic studies, especially Lykaf’s theory, intend to study the relationship between language and gender in Shabhaye Tehran and discuss the influence of the gender of the author of the novel on its language and the achievement of the novelist in introducing a language appropriate to the gender of the characters.For this purpose, the language of the male and female characters in the novel has been studied on the basis ofcertain variables, such as the use of standard language, imperative sentences, interrupted speeches, collaborative and competitive dialogues, and finally decisiveness and subjugation. The findings show that the language of the characters is influenced by the author's gender. The elements of feminine language have been repeated with a higher frequency and the author in many ways succeeded in creating a language appropriate to the gender of the characters. The deviation of some variables from linguistic standards indicates the feministic tendencies of the author.