SPACE ECONOMY & RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Determinants of Livelihood Asset Transformations in Tourism-Oriented Villages (Case Study: Rudsar County)

Abootaleb Ghasemi Vasmejani

Objective: This study aims to identify the factors and components influencing the transformation of livelihood assets in tourism-oriented villages, which are shaped and altered through tourism development. The intensity, trajectory, and scope of such changes -and their effects on rural residents- depend heavily on the specific socio-economic and ecological contexts in which tourism evolves. The central concern in this process is the principle of sustainability and the improvement of the quality of life for all residents affected by tourism growth.
Methods: The research was conducted in tourism-oriented villages of Rudsar County, located in eastern Gilan Province. Employing a mixed-methods design with a deductive-inductive comparative approach, data collection included literature review, field surveys, and semi-structured interviews with local experts, officials, and practitioners. The data were analyzed using the Q methodology. Snowball sampling was employed to select participants.
Results: The results indicate that the most influential factors driving transformations in livelihood assets, ranked by significance, include: constructive interactions among key stakeholders in tourism development; tourism’s competitive advantages; government support and facilitation; cultural orientation and the development of tourism value chains; and, finally, spatial proximity and the availability of ecological–natural capacities.
Conclusions: Tourism-related drivers of livelihood asset transformation can be categorized into internal and external factors, both of which reshape the form and function of rural settlements. The more these factors contribute to enhancing public services and fostering sustainable tourism activities, the more likely they are to generate positive impacts on rural livelihoods.

A Model for the Development of Cooperatives with a Rural Entrepreneurship Approach in Kermanshah Province

Mahtab zhian

Objective: This study was conducted with the aim of designing an indigenous model for the development of cooperatives with a rural entrepreneurship approach in Kermanshah Province.
Methods: The research adopted a qualitative approach, employing the grounded theory method to extract the model. The target population included managers and experts from the Kermanshah Province Department of Cooperatives, Labor, and Social Welfare, faculty members from Razi University, and entrepreneurs active in rural cooperatives within the province. Theoretical sampling was applied, and theoretical saturation was reached after 12 in-depth interviews. Data analysis followed the three-stage coding process—open, axial, and selective coding.
Results: The three-stage coding process identified the foundations of rural entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial cohesion within rural cooperatives, and individual characteristics of rural cooperative entrepreneurs as causal conditions. Contextual conditions included the diversity of rural entrepreneurial opportunities in the cooperative sector, access to production factors, the province’s strategic location, scientific support from experts and specialists, the foundation of collective entrepreneurship (through rural cooperatives), cultural barriers, and weaknesses in the education system. Intervening conditions encompassed climate change, economic factors, environmental disorder and instability, organizational factors, communication and information dissemination factors, genuine governmental support for cooperatives, and infrastructural factors. Identified strategies included business diversification, revision of spatial planning programs, empowerment of cooperative companies, utilization of international trade opportunities, promotion and cultural awareness, and corrective-supportive strategies. The identified outcomes comprised improved quality of life for rural residents, sustainable rural development, and the presence of entrepreneurial rural cooperatives.
Conclusions: To develop cooperatives with a rural entrepreneurship approach in Kermanshah Province, it is essential to consider all factors that accelerate the development process, alongside providing the specific prerequisites for this field and implementing comprehensive planning. The results of this research strengthen the literature on rural and cooperative-based entrepreneurship and offer practical insights to assist rural managers and planners in promoting cooperative-centered rural entrepreneurship, ultimately contributing to the rural development process.

Analysis of the Grape Supply Chain and Development Challenges in Rural Areas of Kouhmareh, Kouhchenar County

Alireza DarbanAstaneh

Objective: The agricultural supply chain plays a crucial role in business development and food security. This study analyzes the current state of the grape supply chain, identifies its challenges at various stages, and evaluates performance differences among villages in the Kouhmareh district.
Methods: This study utilized both documentary and survey-based approaches. Data were collected through validated questionnaires and analyzed using SPSS for statistical tests and ArcMap (IDW tool) for spatial distribution mapping. The statistical population comprised 793 grape producers in Kouhmareh, with a sample of 260 selected using Cochran's formula.
Results: The supply of inputs such as suitable seedlings, water, fertilizers, and pesticides, as well as planting, storage, and harvesting stages, were found to be in relatively good condition. In contrast, access to cold storage, grading, packaging, processing, advertising, branding, and marketing was deemed inadequate. Spatial analysis showed that villages in the eastern part of the district (e.g., Dosiran, Baghestan Kandei, and Baghestan Abul Hayat) had better conditions, while northern, southern, and western areas lagged behind.
Conclusions: The grape supply chain in Kouhmareh faces significant infrastructure and marketing challenges. Improving access to post-harvest facilities, processing units, and promotional mechanisms is essential to strengthen the supply chain, reduce market inefficiencies, and stabilize prices.

Meta-Analysis of the Role of Microenterprises in Empowering Rural Women

Yaser Mohammadi

Objective: In recent decades, the issue of empowering rural women has attracted significant attention from rural development planners. One of the factors that plays a crucial role in this process is the establishment and expansion of microenterprises. The present study was conducted with the aim of examining the impact of creating and developing microenterprises on the empowerment of rural women.
Methods: This study employed meta-analysis as a statistical and systematic method for synthesizing the findings of previous research in the field under investigation. The statistical population consisted of accessible studies addressing the relationship between microenterprises and rural women’s empowerment, published in scientific databases (Sid, Ensani, Noormags, Magiran, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Scopus) during the years 2000–2024. In total, 720 studies were identified, of which 30 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria and were analyzed using CMA2 software. Based on the results of heterogeneity tests (Q index and I² statistic), a random-effects model was selected. Furthermore, to map the research network and identify frequently occurring concepts in this domain, VOSviewer software was used. For this purpose, research keywords were searched in international databases, and the extracted data from selected articles were stored in CSV format and imported into VOSviewer. Domestic sources were searched separately, and the relevant articles were manually entered into the software. Subsequently, scientometric indicators were analyzed using this tool.
Results: The results of the thematic network analysis using VOSviewer revealed co-occurrence between rural women’s empowerment and topics such as entrepreneurship, microcredit, and income. According to Begg and Mazumdar’s correlation test, the included studies demonstrated relative symmetry, confirming the absence of publication bias in the present research. The combined effect size was calculated at 0.453, which, based on Cohen’s criteria, indicates a moderate impact of microenterprise development on the empowerment of rural women.
Conclusions: The findings of this study demonstrate that the establishment and expansion of microenterprises have a significant and positive effect on the empowerment of rural women. Therefore, strengthening rural women’s businesses can serve as a key driver of empowerment, a process that requires supportive systems and institutional backing.

Exploring the Effects of Ecotourism on Entrepreneurship Indicators in Rural Settlements (Case Study: Dalkhani District, Ramsar County)

Seyed Ramin Ghafari

Objective: Ecotourism supports sustainable rural development by preserving the environment and biodiversity, creating jobs, enhancing entrepreneurship, and improving local livelihoods. This study examines how ecotourism impacts entrepreneurship indicators in rural settlements of Dalkhani District, Ramsar County.
Methods: The research is descriptive–analytical and applied, using documentary and field methods (questionnaires, interviews, observations). The statistical population comprises 3,475 households in 98 rural settlements, from which 370 were selected via Cochran’s formula using systematic random sampling. Questionnaire validity was confirmed by ecotourism and entrepreneurship experts; reliability was high (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.949). Data were analyzed with SPSS, Smart PLS, and GIS tools, applying Spearman correlation, one-sample t-tests, and path analysis to explore causal relationships.
Results: Among ecotourism dimensions, the economic (score = 31.53) and socio-cultural (score = 27.91) indicators had the strongest correlation (0.74). The weakest link was between physical–spatial and economic indicators (0.32). All dimensions significantly affected rural entrepreneurship, with ecotourism markedly fostering entrepreneurial activities.
Conclusion: In Dalkhani, ecotourism has created jobs, increased household income through accommodation, hospitality, agricultural product sales, and handicrafts, and moderately improved local infrastructure. However, insufficient attention to sustainability risks ecological and cultural imbalances. Future rural planning should integrate sustainability to ensure long-term benefits.

Determinants of the Behavioral Intention of Irrigated Wheat Farmers Toward Cultivating Low-Water-Demand Crops

Mehdi Rahimian

Objective: Shifting cultivation from high-water-demand crops to those requiring less water is considered an effective adaptation strategy to water scarcity and drought, enabling the continuation of agricultural activities without abandonment. Implementing such a cropping change mechanism requires not only technical, supportive, and legal measures but also psychological interventions through the study of farmers’ behaviors and behavioral intentions regarding crop pattern change. This study aims to examine the behavioral intentions of irrigated wheat farmers toward cultivating low-water-demand crops using the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (ETPB).
Methods: The statistical population comprised 711 irrigated wheat farmers in Kuhdasht County, Lorestan Province, Iran. Using Krejcie and Morgan’s table, a sample size of 250 farmers was determined. Participants were selected through a combination of stratified proportional allocation and convenience sampling. Data were collected via a researcher-designed questionnaire. Content validity was established through expert review by university professors and specialists from the Agricultural Jihad Water Affairs Department, with subsequent revisions implemented. Reliability was confirmed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all constructs, ranging from 0.78 to 0.93. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 22 and SmartPLS 4.
Results: Results indicated that all hypotheses were supported except for the effects of descriptive norms and risk perception on behavioral intention. The ETPB variables explained 44.8% of the variance in farmers’ behavioral intention. Farmers with higher incomes and larger landholdings showed greater willingness to shift from traditional crops to low-water-demand crops. No significant relationship was found between education level and willingness to change cropping patterns. A significant negative relationship between willingness to change and both age and farming experience suggests that older farmers are generally more risk-averse and less receptive to change compared to younger farmers.
Conclusions: Recommended strategies include establishing demonstration farms for low-water-demand crops such as saffron and medicinal plants suitable for local climatic conditions with the participation of progressive farmers; leveraging public media, social networks, and digital platforms; providing comprehensive support for low-water-demand cultivation through input supply, machinery, training, and advisory services during planting, growing, and harvesting; and preparing educational videos and booklets introducing such crops. These measures aim to encourage adoption among farmers.

Analysis of Factors Influencing Migration to the City of Abhar with Emphasis on Economic Components and Rural Origins

Mousa Kamanroudi Kojouri

Objective: This study analyzes the factors attracting migrants—predominantly from rural areas—to Abhar, focusing on economic opportunities, improved living conditions, and access to suitable employment. It also examines the socio-economic and cultural impacts of migration on the city’s infrastructure and local communities.
Methods: The research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach with an applied purpose. The statistical population comprises 34887 households (household heads) residing in Abhar, from which a sample of 380 households was determined using Cochran’s formula. Data, both quantitative and qualitative, were collected through library–documentary research and field methods (interviews and questionnaires) using systematic random sampling. The study covers the period from 1956 to 2021. Data analysis employed SPSS software, multiple regression analysis, and spatial data processing through Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Results: Results show that 57.63% of migrants to Abhar originated from rural areas, while 42.37% came from urban areas. The highest proportion of migrants came from within Abhar County (47.63%), and the lowest from Soltaniyeh (1.58%). Economic factors (β = 0.49) were the strongest predictors of migration, while recreational–tourism factors (β = 0.23) had the least impact.
Conclusions: The main drivers of migration to Abhar include economic opportunities, healthcare services, natural resources, infrastructure, education, and socio-cultural amenities. Migration flows are predominantly from within Abhar County, adjacent areas of Zanjan Province, and nearby counties, indicating a high concentration of development in Abhar. Given the ongoing centralization of resources and opportunities, migration is expected to continue rising, further exacerbating regional disparities. The study recommends reducing these disparities by distributing employment opportunities, services, and resources more evenly between Abhar and surrounding rural areas.

Economic Performance Evaluation of New Tropical Forage Varieties in Rural Areas of Sistan (Iran)

Mahmoud Mohammad Ghasemi

Objective: This study evaluates the economic performance of newly introduced tropical forage varieties, including alfalfa, in the rural regions of Sistan, specifically in Molla Hossein village of Zahak County and Molla Ebrahim village of Hamun County, during the two agricultural years 2021–2023.
Methods: The research is applied in purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature. The economic evaluation of the new forage varieties was first conducted using financial analysis, followed by economic engineering techniques and standard criteria such as Net Present Value (NPV) and Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR). Finally, a multi-criteria decision-making technique based on the Grey System was employed from the perspective of local farmers.
Results: Results revealed that the NPV of the new tropical forage varieties was 1,023,516 IRR higher in financial analysis compared with economic analysis. Furthermore, the BCR of alfalfa varieties Omid, Baghdadi, and the locally purified Zabol line was 3.87, 3.89, 5.37, 4.7, and 3.89, respectively. The positive benefit–cost ratios confirm their economic feasibility and potential to enhance crop diversification and household income. In terms of average forage yield, the Omid variety ranked first, with fresh and dry forage yields of 107.589 t/ha and 28.323 t/ha, respectively. It was followed by Baghdadi (103.513 t/ha fresh; 26.419 t/ha dry) and the locally purified Zabol line (102.463 t/ha fresh; 27.322 t/ha dry). From the farmers’ perspective, multi-criteria decision-making analysis indicated that the most influential criteria in prioritizing forage cultivation were: increased productivity and irrigation efficiency, drought resistance, higher income generation, improved quality of life, rural retention, and enhanced employment.
Conclusions: Given the results obtained under the hot and arid experimental conditions, a significant portion of Sistan’s agricultural lands and similar agro-climatic regions can be allocated to alfalfa cultivation, particularly the Omid, Baghdadi, and the locally purified Zabol line varieties. Such an initiative would contribute substantially to crop diversification, income enhancement, and rural employment creation.