Economy

Poverty as a socio-economic issue has unsuitable out ones in rural societies. It is said to be an abstract in the way to rural sustainable development. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of social capital on rural poverty reduction in rural areas of Ghobchagh village in Miyandoab County. The method of this research is analytical-description. Data collection has performed through documentation and field survey. In doing data analysis, descriptive situational measures (mean, variance, standard deviation) inferential statistics (Spearman correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and path analysis) has been used. Study area is Ghobchagh village in Miyandoab County with 163 sample of household in Cochran’s modified formula. Results shows, a meaning full relationship between rise of social capital elements and reduction of economic poverty of villages. In such a way that all the elements of social capital (trust, participation, unity and social communication) has negative effect on economic poverty reduction of villages. In this between, social unity’s elements value of with 0.598 has the highest effect and trust element (factor) with a value of 0.197 has the lowest effect on reduction in economic poverty in the study area.

The industrialization of rural areas has led to changes in rural economies through the absorption of rural population. This in turn, helps in reduction in unemployment rate as well as economic growth. This strategy is capable of improving rural standard of living and paves the way for the achievement of sustainable rural economy. This study tries to investigate the dimensions, aspects and benefits associated with linkages between agriculture and rural industries in general and in central part of Rasht in particular. It further stresses on the impact of agricultural complementary processing industries upon rural economy.

This study has applied nature and it is based on descriptive - analytical method. It further demands application of survey, field works as well as documentation. Statistical society composed of rural development experts. Out of 243 first round questionnaires, 48 were selected. The credibility of this questionnaire was done using the related experts. Its viability was determined to be 0.876 using Kronbakh alpha. This study further supports application of SPSS, Excel and Arc GIS for data analysis purpose.

This study suggests that the benefits and impacts of linkages between agriculture and industries are proven. This could exemplify itself in agricultural product support at different production stages, usage of new agricultural economic method, strengthening rural economy base, creation of jobs incomes as well as expansion of exports and rural investments. This linkage in turn could lead to strengthening rural economy bases and the achievement of rural sustainable development. It finally conveys this message that the only way of increase in agricultural products and self- sufficiency and entering into international market competition is through creation of agricultural complementary – processing industries.

Introduction
In economy structure of rural districts in different countries, agriculture is considered as the main source of livelihood. The most important characteristic of this structure is lack of diversification for economic contexts and job opportunities, especially for the increasing number of people in the villages which is almost the result of attitude toward the village and government policies and internal factors in the village. The consequences that are the results of dependency of the users to the environment out of the village and external markets, obvious and unobvious unemployment, decrease in return of investment, destruction of basic natural resources, rural economy vulnerability, and instability of income sources include weakening economy and culture of the village, rural migration and marginalization. The country's villages have a weak economy and they are vulnerable because of their severe dependency on agriculture and its income and lack of employment sources and non-farm income sources. Agriculture section is not capable of increasing the level of income because of limitation of land areas which cannot be increased. Therefore, it seems necessary to search for another income source regarding the capabilities and limitation of each region of the country for rural economy diversification in order to increase the population stability in the villages. Upper Ashkevar rural district is located in a mountain region and therefore it has limitation in land area, it has agriculture -based livelihood, a limited capacity for employing workforce and no diversification. Because of population growth and increase of the number of young workforce, unemployment rate is growing every day and it seems to be extremely important to find alternative strategies for villagers' employment and income earning in this region focusing on population stability and saving the remained population. Therefore, diversification approach for rural economic activities as a useful strategy is one of the most important strategies which is presented for reducing the negative impacts of unsustainability in different environmental, economic and social aspects on rural contexts and in accordance with sustainable development pattern which is confirmed by most of international organizations including Global Bank and by most of theorists. High vulnerability of agriculture activities in the region has increased the necessity of diversification in agriculture activities. This study aims to answer the following question: "What are the most important limitations in diversification of rural economic activities in Upper Ashkevar"?
Methodology
This survey is a practical one, regarding its aim and it is done by descriptive-analytic method. The population includes villages of Ashkurat district in Rudsar which is determined according to field studies in the region and exploratory studies. For assessment of studied variables, we used survey methods and documentary research methods to obtain the information needed. In documentary part, we collected data by reviewing the literature and theories and in quantitative part we analyzed data which were collected through field study and also by the information provided from some organizations. The study population includes villages of Upper Ashkevar rural district (53 villages) in Rudsar County. To determine the number of households, we used Cochran Formula and according to that, samples are 285 households. Alfa Cronbach coefficient is calculated 0.786. To analysis the impacts of infrastructural and basic variables, natural factors and social factors which are effective on the lack of diversification in rural economy activities, we used step by step multi regression analysis method. The studied region is located in Rahimabad district in Rudsar County, north of Iran. Its elevation is 1500 to 2000 meter above sea level. Its population has decreased from 2478 people in 2006 to 1619 people in 2011. Agriculture is the basic occupation for the villagers in this region. Environmental limitation especially droughts in recent decades and climate changes in most years have threatened the agriculture production in this area.
Discussion and Conclusion
One of the most effective factors to describe the presence of increasing unemployment, low income, migration from rural districts to cities, low level of production, and inefficient use of resources is lack of diversification in economic activities in rural settlements. This issue has a fundamental role in economic instability. Rural settlements in this region are affected by many factors including unevenness of the soil surface, weather, water resources, soil and vegetation, limitation of slope, cold weather, geographical isolation and lack of infrastructures. As a result, there is a sever instability in economy and population of this region; in a way that during two censuses in 85 and 90, population of this region decreased by 30%. Increase of unemployment, poverty, income inequality and as a consequence pressure on basic resources have resulted in environmental problems including soil erosion. The obtained results show that among all the different factors which were studied, the impact of infrastructural and basic factors is more than other variables. Then, environmental factors, economic factors and social factors are effective in lack of rural economy diversification respectively. Regarding this, providing and implementing development plans for expansion and improvement of infrastructure levels such as suitable road, supporting services for production and alternant industries can be effective in rural economy diversification of the region.
 

Introduction
Today, in order to achieve sustainable rural development as well as optimization of local advantages, identifying the factors affecting the utilization of geographical advantages are essential. The villages of the country today are more than ever influenced by the political, economic, social and cultural conditions of their systems as external factors influencing the development of rural settlements. These are factors such as inappropriate government policies at all levels of planning, legislation, management and implementation, bias towards urban areas and large industries, lack of independent civil society organizations, fostering the transformation of villages into cities and so on. Moreover, the internal obstacles of rural communities are such as: low level of awareness of rural stakeholders on their internal and socio-economic capacities, restrictive norms, low power of transformation, and low the power of risk, overcoming traditional approaches to harnessing the potential of rural areas, and the uncertainty and trust between rural communities towards new perspectives and patterns, etc. Both factors are the reasons for neglecting rural areas and lack of  proper operation of the capacity and potential in this area. Rural settlements in Khorramabad county have not seen much growth and are facing instability of rural settlements, despite their high potentials and capacities in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. In this regard, the present study seeks to answer the following question: What are the factors influencing the role of geographical advantages in achieving sustainable development of rural settlements?

 Methodology
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors affecting the role of geographical advantages in achieving sustainable development in rural settlements of Khorramabad. In this regard, it is a combination (quantitative-qualitative) research method with sequential strategy and exploratory - descriptive research design. Based on this orientation and evaluation, the Q model was selected for problem recognition and analysis. The statistical population of the study is the villages of Khorramabad. The qualitative participants were expert villagers who selected 30 theoretically saturated subjects and data were collected using semi-structured interviews and semi-structured interview card tools. In the quantitative section, we chose village experts. 150 villages out of 647 villages, were selected by simple stratified sampling. Next, one rural mayor or council was selected from each village. In the Q model, Q cards were used to collect data.

Discussion and conclusion
According to rural experts, the lack of role of geographical advantages in the feasibility of sustainable rural development in the study areas is influenced by the following factors: low level of skill and familiarity with modern knowledge, dominance of conservative mindset, lack of creativity and innovation, aging population, dominance of closed cultural beliefs, low income, inflation and uneven distribution of credit resources, market system instability, poor attention to infrastructure and welfare services, rural education and promotion system failure, weak legal-institutional arrangements, lack of system Integrated program for agricultural activities commensurate with domestic and foreign markets, service weakness Production support, low level of security and weakness of processing companies.
Rural experts' perceptions of the inability of geographical advantages to achieve sustainable rural development fall into five categories: economic factors, managerial-institutional factors, socio-cultural factors, human factors, and physical factors, which are economic factors with  25%, managerial-institutional factors with 23.66%, socio-cultural factors with 23.66%, human factors with 20.23% and physical factors with 8.70% had the most influence on the lack of role of geographical advantages in the feasibility of sustainable rural development.
According to the results, meticulous planning in organizing economic, social, political, organizational and managerial and cultural constructions, utilizing the geographical advantages of rural areas is one of the most important prerequisites for achieving sustainable rural development. As a result, planners need to identify and analyze the forces and relationships that make the most of these advantages by influencing shaping forces and processes, help improve the conditions in the geographic advantage process.
 

Introduction
Population growth, the need to provide food security, and pressure on natural resources in developing countries are facing a fundamental challenge for the sustainable production of food products. The need to pay attention to sustainability in agriculture has been confirmed at local, regional, national, and global levels. Sustainable agriculture is a system that uses resources efficiently, produces healthy food resources, preserves the quality of the environment and resources for future generations, and is economically dynamic. Sustainability is a qualitative concept that cannot be measured directly, so appropriate indicators should be selected to determine the amount and durability of an agricultural system. Efficiency is a significant factor in the productivity growth of production resources, especially in developing countries. Increasing efficiency can be considered a suitable and sustainable complement to a set of policies that encourage and protect domestic production and promote the optimal use of resources. The exact definition of efficiency can be found in Pareto's definition. According to the definition of efficiency, a system has Pareto efficiency so that it is impossible to improve the economic status of an individual from society without worsening the economic status of another individual. In other words, the reallocation of resources should not worsen the situation of some people in society. Therefore, improving the efficiency and optimal consumption of production factors in improving the sustainability of agricultural operations in the direction of sustainable development is inevitable. Based on this, the main goal of the present study is to determine the efficiency and optimal use of production resources by rice farmers in rural areas of Gotvand in the direction of sustainable development under conditions of uncertainty (the application of robust Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)).

Methodology
Efficiency measurement methods are classified into two parametric and non-parametric methods according to their characteristics. The most apparent model proposed in the non-parametric framework is the DEA model. In DEA, the efficiency of a group of investigated units is determined by using a multiple set of input and output variables. One of the major limitations of the mentioned method is the high sensitivity of this method to the change in the value of input and output data, or in other words, the presence of uncertainty in these data. Because agriculture is always faced with uncertainty, when the input and output values ​​have uncertainty, the mentioned model faces problems. In this regard, it is necessary to use another method that can protect optimal solutions against uncertainty. Recently, various methods have been proposed to overcome the problem of uncertain data in DEA, such as Interval DEA (IDEA), Fuzzy DEA (FDEA) and Stochastic DEA (SDEA). Another method of dealing with uncertain data that was introduced in mathematical programming models in the late 1990s is Robust DEA (RDEA). This method does not have some shortcomings in other methods for applying uncertainty conditions in the DEA model. The RDEA is one of the robust and valuable models in conditions of uncertainty, and in this study, this method was used to analyze the efficiency of rice farmers. The required data in the study area was obtained through the distribution and completion of the questionnaire in 2018 by 121 rice farmers considering the statistical population and using simple random sampling.

Discussion and conclusion
The average technical efficiency in the state of constant return to scale efficiency and at the level of 0.5 deviation probability and 20% uncertainty level is equal to 0.79, which means that rice farmers can use a fixed technology without reducing production, reduce their input consumption by 21% and reach the production efficiency bound. As a result, the producers of the studied area need to use production inputs optimally to produce a given level of production. However, the actual values ​​of input consumption by rice farmers in rural areas are far from the estimated optimal values. In other words, there is excess consumption for all inputs. The most inefficient inputs in the present study are the area under cultivation and herbicide. Therefore, achieving the optimal level of consumption of these inputs without reducing production by reducing 48% and 45% in the consumption of the cultivated area and herbicide, respectively. Considering the low technical efficiency and unfavorable input consumption among the rice farmers in the researched rural areas, it is suggested to identify efficient units and serve as a reference for inefficient units and develop a regular annual plan for optimal input consumption by farmers and as a result of improving efficiency, to improve the sustainability of agricultural operations in line with the goals of sustainable development. Also, educational planning is recommended to use suitable and advanced technologies to increase the productivity of production factors.
 

Introduction
Entrepreneurship in rural areas can create new job opportunities and increase income, leading to improved economic and living conditions for villagers. As a result, the concept of entrepreneurship has become more closely linked to the development of villages compared to the past. Encouraging rural entrepreneurship can contribute to rural communities' economic growth by recognizing the agricultural sector's strengths and weaknesses. This can be achieved through effective strategic planning, promoting creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship. Doing so helps prevent a policy of state-centralism, which prioritizes the convenience and obedience of villagers. Several benefits are associated with rural entrepreneurship, including the development of employment opportunities, reduction in rural migrations, increased income, and innovation. Despite these advantages, rural entrepreneurship has not yet flourished in Iran's rural communities, and entrepreneurial activity has not been institutionalized in these areas. Research conducted in various countries, including Iran, has revealed that rural entrepreneurship encounters numerous obstacles. These include limited access to skilled labor in rural regions, low levels of education, knowledge, and technical skills, and inadequate knowledge of information technology in rural areas.
Furthermore, the absence of a supportive family, societal, and support system environment does not foster rural entrepreneurship growth. It does not motivate rural individuals to pursue entrepreneurship as a career. Young and educated people often leave the villages and go to big cities hoping for a better future, more income, and easier life, and this phenomenon of brain drain causes a lack of reincarnation and matching between existing jobs and the workforce's skills. The rest is in the villages. It is important to acknowledge the significance of rural entrepreneurship in disadvantaged communities for implementing sustainable rural development programs and policies. However, there are numerous challenges that must be addressed in order to enhance this field and provide opportunities for employment. Developing strategies that can effectively reduce or eliminate these challenges and problems will help promote a better quality of life and livelihood for those living in rural areas.

Methodology
This research aimed to conduct an applied, analytical, and exploratory study. The necessary data was gathered through both library research and a questionnaire. In the initial phase, an environmental survey was utilized to identify the key factors that impact rural development in Hamedan Province, specifically in relation to entrepreneurship and home-based businesses. Faculty members of the agricultural development training group and rural planning experts confirmed the validity of extracted indicators. The statistical population of this research was ten experts and specialists in rural development and planning. In the next step, the interviewees are asked to declare their agreement or disagreement and their level with each title using a Likert scale. In other words, they are quantifiable. At this stage, the components that get a score lower than the average will be removed from the research, and the remaining components will enter the next stage. In the following, to identify the drivers among the key factors obtained in the previous section, a mutual effects questionnaire was designed and returned to the interviewees, and they were asked to score. The weighting of this questionnaire was measured as a pairwise comparison, and the correlation between the variables was measured between zero and three. MIC MAC software was used for data analysis in this research and this step. Wizard software was also used to develop scenarios.

Discussion and conclusion
The findings revealed that, apart from the current connections between the indicators, there were potential forms of relationships among them. These can be utilized in the planning process. The results show that the factors with the greatest impact on the system are investing enough financial resources in villages, providing women with a legitimate presence in various areas including politics, law, society, culture, economics, and operations, and defining a participatory planning model within the legal framework of Hamadan Province.
Some indicators have a greater impact than others on the state and changes of a system. These critical indicators are considered input variables that the system cannot control. The "Improvement of rural tourism infrastructure" index is a system risk index. It has a very high capacity to become the key player of the system because, due to its unstable nature, they have the potential to become the system's breaking point. The indicators of "Strengthening, creating confidence and raising awareness among villagers to meet their basic needs, such as free education in primary levels, university education, skills, job creation" and "Approval of laws to support rural businesses during severe currency fluctuations" are effective. They rely heavily on the changes in important and dual variables and are easily affected by them. These variables represent the system's output. After analyzing indicators in the Wizard software, two scenarios were identified. The first scenario, "Paying Attention to Local Planning," was one of them. This scenario had high compatibility. The elements of this reported scenario constitute a complete set of mutually supporting assumptions. Also the second scenario was called "sectional planning". According to the results of the research, local planning can be done in each of the villages of Hamadan Province, looking at the capacity and potential of that region for sustainable rural development.
 

Introduction
In the current situation, the rural society of the country, especially the villages of Ardabil Province, is plagued with many issues and problems, including low income, poverty, migration, evacuation of villages, and low availability of health and welfare services. The main characteristic of all existing issues and problems is related to the weak economic foundations of people and their unstable employment situation. According to experts, one of the necessary solutions to solve these issues and problems is the output and development of entrepreneurship, especially in the villages, emphasizing tasks. Watershed management is conducted in the province, and the ultimate goal of implementing these plans is the well-being of the watershed residents.

 Methodology
The current research was conducted in two qualitative (thematic analysis) and quantitative stages to design and validate the entrepreneurship model and sustainable rural development, emphasizing watershed management projects. This research is exploratory in terms of purpose and descriptive in terms of type, which was carried out in the field in Ardabil Province. The research was first qualitative interview type and the second quantitative survey method. The statistical population of the research in the first stage was 20 professors of management and watershed management and senior supervisors of the General Directorate of Natural Resources and Watershed Management of Ardabil Province. In the second stage, 200 respondents from beneficiaries of watershed management projects in Ardabil Province were selected for the structural equation modeling method. During the first stage of this research, we conducted in-depth and semi-structured interviews to collect data. In the second stage, we used a redesigned questionnaire with closed answers (using the Likert scale) to collect information based on the indicators of the entrepreneurship model and sustainable rural development, focusing on watershed management projects.

Discussion and conclusion
The coding results show that the factors influencing the formation of this pattern were categorized into seven more primary factors (promotion, providing sustainable resources, tourism, social, economic, new jobs, participation, and empowerment) and 38 concepts (open codes). Based on the research results and among the extracted main components, the tourism component, with a path coefficient of 0.902, has had the greatest impact on the sustainable entrepreneurship of the villagers based on the implemented watershed management plans. Finally, among the influential components in the sustainable entrepreneurship of villagers based on implemented watershed projects, the "promotion" component with a path coefficient of 0.759 has had the most negligible impact in the designed model.